Today we will discuss about shortwave diathermy:
Shortwave Diathermy in Physiotherapy: Principles, Physics, Benefits, Indications, Contraindications and Evidence
Shortwave diathermy (SWD) is a physiotherapy modality that uses high-frequency electromagnetic energy to produce therapeutic effects in body tissues.
Unlike superficial heating methods such as hot packs, shortwave diathermy can transfer electromagnetic energy into tissues without requiring direct contact with a hot surface.
Depending on the parameters used, SWD may produce a significant thermal effect or relatively little tissue heating.
Shortwave diathermy has historically been used for conditions such as:
Osteoarthritis
Chronic musculoskeletal pain
Joint stiffness
Muscle spasm
Soft-tissue disorders
Chronic inflammatory conditions
Selected rehabilitation conditions
However, its clinical evidence is mixed. A 2023 systematic review of electromagnetic diathermy for musculoskeletal disorders found controversial results, with most pooled outcomes showing no significant benefit and the certainty of evidence generally rated low or very low. (PubMed)
More recent evidence is somewhat more encouraging for knee osteoarthritis, but important uncertainty remains about optimal parameters and the clinical importance of observed improvements. A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis involving 17 trials and 1,372 participants reported improvements in pain, walking ability, physical function and stiffness, but also noted very-low-certainty evidence for some outcomes. (PubMed)
Therefore, SWD is best understood as an adjunctive modality, not a replacement for active rehabilitation.
What Is Shortwave Diathermy?
Shortwave diathermy uses high-frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer energy into biological tissues.
The commonly used clinical frequency is:
27.12 MHz
This frequency corresponds to a wavelength of approximately:
11.06 metres
SWD equipment generally delivers energy using one of two principal arrangements:
Capacitive method
Electrodes are positioned around the treatment area.
The tissues between the electrodes form part of the electromagnetic field.
Inductive method
A coil or drum produces an electromagnetic field that induces currents within conductive tissues.
Inductive techniques can be particularly useful when treating tissues with relatively high electrical conductivity, such as muscle.
Continuous vs Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
Shortwave diathermy is commonly divided into:
Continuous Shortwave Diathermy
Continuous SWD delivers electromagnetic energy continuously.
Its principal clinical effect is generally tissue heating.
It is therefore considered a form of deep thermal therapy.
Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
Pulsed SWD delivers electromagnetic energy in bursts.
The average power can be substantially lower than continuous SWD.
Depending on the parameters, tissue temperature may rise only minimally.
It has historically been proposed that pulsed SWD can produce biological effects beyond heating, sometimes called athermal or non-thermal effects.
However, the evidence for clinically meaningful non-thermal effects is considerably less established than the evidence for electromagnetic energy producing tissue heating.
Physics Behind Shortwave Diathermy
Understanding SWD requires basic knowledge of:
Electromagnetic radiation
Frequency
Wavelength
Electric fields
Magnetic fields
Tissue conductivity
Dielectric properties
Electromagnetic energy absorption
Tissue heating
Power density
1. Electromagnetic Energy
Shortwave diathermy does not primarily work by passing electrical current directly through the body in the way that TENS or NMES does.
Instead, it uses a high-frequency electromagnetic field.
The electromagnetic field interacts with biological tissues.
The degree of energy absorption depends on the electrical properties of those tissues.
2. Frequency
Frequency describes the number of electromagnetic oscillations occurring per second.
The commonly used SWD frequency is:
27.12 MHz = 27.12 million cycles per second
The corresponding wavelength can be calculated using:
λ = c / f
where:
λ = wavelength
c = speed of electromagnetic propagation
f = frequency
At 27.12 MHz, the wavelength is approximately 11 metres.
3. Tissue Conductivity
Different tissues conduct electromagnetic energy differently.
Water and electrolyte content strongly influence conductivity.
Generally:
Blood and muscle → relatively conductive
Fat → relatively less conductive
Bone → relatively low conductivity
This means that energy distribution is not necessarily uniform throughout the body.
The characteristics of the electromagnetic field, electrode/coil arrangement and tissue composition all influence energy absorption.
4. Capacitive Heating
In capacitive SWD, electrodes create an alternating electric field.
Tissues located between the electrodes respond to the rapidly changing field.
Polar molecules and charged particles respond to the alternating electrical environment, resulting in energy absorption and, under appropriate conditions, tissue heating.
The distribution of heating depends on:
Electrode position
Electrode size
Electrode distance
Tissue composition
Blood flow
Treatment parameters
5. Inductive Heating
Inductive SWD uses an alternating magnetic field.
This changing magnetic field induces electrical currents within conductive tissues.
The induced currents dissipate energy within the tissue.
This can produce heating, particularly in tissues with relatively high electrical conductivity.
6. Tissue Temperature
Therapeutic heating is one of the best-established physiological effects of continuous SWD.
A systematic review examining tissue temperature changes with different SWD techniques found that temperature responses varied substantially according to treatment method and parameters. Continuous capacitive SWD produced substantial skin temperature increases in some experimental arrangements, while low-dose pulsed SWD produced much smaller changes. (PubMed)
This is clinically important:
The phrase "shortwave diathermy" does not automatically tell you how much a tissue will heat.
The treatment parameters determine the thermal dose.
7. Heat Distribution
SWD can heat tissues over a relatively large treatment region.
This differs from ultrasound, where energy deposition is more strongly localized along the ultrasound beam and depends heavily on tissue interfaces.
Experimental work has demonstrated measurable heating within muscle during SWD treatment. (PubMed)
However, treatment depth and heating distribution are not fixed.
They depend on:
Frequency
Technique
Electrode/coil arrangement
Tissue properties
Treatment intensity
Duration
Blood flow
8. Blood Flow and Heat Dissipation
When tissue temperature rises, local blood flow can increase.
This increased circulation can also remove heat.
Therefore:
More blood flow → greater heat dissipation
This is one reason why tissues with different vascularity may reach different temperatures during the same treatment.
9. Thermal Dose
The clinical effect of thermal SWD depends on the relationship between:
Temperature
Duration
Tissue depth
Tissue characteristics
Blood flow
Patient perception
A treatment that produces substantial heating is physiologically different from a low-average-power pulsed treatment that produces little measurable temperature increase.
Physiological Effects of Shortwave Diathermy
When sufficient heating occurs, SWD may produce several physiological responses.
1. Increased Tissue Temperature
The primary thermal effect.
2. Increased Local Blood Flow
Heating can cause vasodilation and increased local circulation.
3. Reduced Muscle Spasm
Heat can decrease the sensation of muscular tightness and may make movement more comfortable.
4. Increased Soft-Tissue Extensibility
Heating can temporarily increase the extensibility of certain connective tissues.
This may be useful before:
Stretching
Mobilization
Exercise
Range-of-motion work
However, heating alone does not restore normal tissue length or function.
5. Pain Modulation
Thermal stimulation can influence pain perception.
Patients may experience short-term pain relief, although the clinical evidence for SWD varies substantially between conditions.
How Does Shortwave Diathermy Work Clinically?
The practical rationale for SWD is often:
Electromagnetic energy → tissue energy absorption → thermal response → physiological changes → possible symptom improvement
For thermal SWD:
SWD → tissue heating → increased circulation + reduced stiffness + altered pain sensitivity → improved tolerance of movement
The final clinical outcome depends on what happens after the modality.
For example:
SWD + exercise
may be more clinically meaningful than:
SWD alone
because the patient can potentially use the period of reduced stiffness or pain to perform active rehabilitation.
Indications for Shortwave Diathermy
SWD may be considered as an adjunct in selected patients with:
Osteoarthritis
Chronic musculoskeletal pain
Joint stiffness
Muscle spasm
Selected chronic soft-tissue conditions
Chronic low back pain
Selected rehabilitation conditions where deep heating is clinically appropriate
The evidence is strongest for selected pain-related outcomes rather than for broad claims of tissue healing.
Shortwave Diathermy for Knee Osteoarthritis
Knee osteoarthritis is one of the most extensively studied applications.
A 2012 systematic review found small beneficial effects on pain and muscle performance when SWD produced a local thermal effect, but no clear effect on functional performance. The authors emphasized substantial variation between treatment protocols. (PubMed)
A later meta-analysis of randomized trials found that shortwave therapy reduced pain compared with sham/no intervention, while evidence for physical function was not convincing. (PubMed)
A placebo-controlled trial of pulsed SWD found no significant between-group improvement in pain, stiffness or functional outcomes despite three weeks of treatment. (PubMed)
More recently, a 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis included 17 trials involving 1,372 participants. The analysis reported improvements in pain, walking ability, physical function and stiffness, although some evidence was of very low certainty. SWD did not outperform ultrasound or electrotherapy for several outcomes, while ultrasound showed greater pain reduction in one comparison. (PubMed)
Clinical interpretation
SWD may provide symptom relief for some patients with knee osteoarthritis, but it should generally be used alongside:
Strength training
Aerobic exercise
Functional training
Weight-management strategies where appropriate
Education
Other evidence-based interventions
It should not replace active rehabilitation.
Shortwave Diathermy for Chronic Low Back Pain
SWD has also been investigated for chronic low back pain.
A recent randomized controlled trial compared continuous SWD, pulsed SWD and placebo in people with chronic low back pain. A single 30-minute treatment produced immediate reductions in selected pain outcomes compared with placebo, although the study primarily assessed immediate effects rather than establishing long-term clinical benefit. (PubMed)
A separate 2026 randomized study compared single-session SWD with ultrasound and shockwave therapy for nonspecific low back pain and examined immediate pain and range-of-motion outcomes. (PubMed)
These studies are useful but should not be interpreted as evidence that SWD alone provides durable treatment for chronic low back pain.
For chronic low back pain, active interventions such as:
Exercise
Education
Activity modification
Graded functional rehabilitation
remain central to physiotherapy management.
Shortwave Diathermy Combined With Exercise
One important question is whether SWD adds value when exercise is already being provided.
A randomized clinical study in knee osteoarthritis compared isokinetic exercise with and without SWD. Both groups improved in pain, disability, walking distance, strength and quality of life, demonstrating the substantial contribution of exercise itself. (PubMed)
A more recent randomized comparative study evaluated high-intensity laser and SWD, both combined with exercise, in knee osteoarthritis, highlighting the continued investigation of SWD as an adjunct rather than a standalone treatment. (PubMed)
This illustrates an important clinical principle:
When SWD is used, its purpose should be to facilitate the overall rehabilitation program rather than become the rehabilitation program.
Contraindications to Shortwave Diathermy
Because SWD uses electromagnetic energy and can produce deep tissue heating, contraindications are particularly important.
1. Cardiac Pacemakers and Certain Electronic Implants
Shortwave electromagnetic fields can interfere with implanted electronic devices.
This is a major safety concern.
Historical experimental evidence demonstrated that electromagnetic interference can alter pacemaker function, including potentially dangerous rhythm or pacing effects. (PubMed)
Therefore, SWD should generally not be applied to patients with implanted electronic devices unless the device manufacturer and specialist guidance specifically establish safety.
2. Malignancy
SWD is generally contraindicated over known or suspected malignant tissue.
The concern relates particularly to the effects of electromagnetic energy and heating on abnormal tissue.
3. Pregnancy
SWD should not be applied over the abdomen, pelvis or other areas where electromagnetic exposure could affect the fetus.
Pregnancy is therefore generally treated as a contraindication to therapeutic SWD in relevant treatment regions.
A 2023 survey of physiotherapists also identified substantial uncertainty regarding several SWD contraindications, including pregnancy, highlighting the importance of formal safety screening. (PubMed)
4. Active Bleeding or Significant Bleeding Risk
Thermal treatment can increase local blood flow.
Therefore, SWD should be avoided over actively bleeding tissues or situations in which increased circulation could worsen bleeding.
5. Acute Severe Inflammation Where Heating Is Inappropriate
Thermal SWD may not be appropriate when increasing local temperature and circulation could aggravate an acute inflammatory process.
Clinical context matters because not every inflammatory condition behaves identically.
6. Severe Vascular Insufficiency
Significant vascular disease requires careful consideration.
Thermal treatments can alter circulation and tissue oxygen demand.
7. Active Infection
SWD should generally not be applied over active infection where heating could be inappropriate.
8. Thrombosis
SWD should not be applied over a suspected or known acute thrombus because heating and circulatory effects may create unacceptable risk.
9. Loss of Thermal Sensation
A patient who cannot reliably perceive heat may be unable to report excessive heating.
This increases the risk of thermal injury.
10. Metal and Electronic Equipment Considerations
The presence of metal is not a simple universal contraindication.
However, metal implants, external metal objects, electronic devices and conductive materials can alter electromagnetic fields and heating patterns.
The exact device, implant material, treatment technique and manufacturer guidance must therefore be considered.
Precautions
Additional caution may be required with:
Reduced sensation
Diabetes with neuropathy
Poor circulation
Significant cardiovascular disease
Skin conditions
Impaired cognition
Difficulty communicating
Large metallic implants
Recent surgery
Fragile tissues
The clinician should always follow the specific SWD device manufacturer's safety instructions.
How Is Shortwave Diathermy Applied?
The exact procedure depends on the equipment.
A typical treatment includes:
Step 1: Clinical Assessment
The physiotherapist identifies:
Diagnosis
Treatment goal
Pain and stiffness
Skin condition
Sensation
Circulation
Contraindications
Implanted devices
Metal/electronic equipment
Step 2: Positioning
The patient is positioned comfortably so the treatment area can be exposed and treated safely.
Step 3: Remove Conductive or Metallic Objects
Depending on the equipment and treatment area, the clinician may remove:
Jewelry
Watches
Metallic clothing components
Other potentially interfering objects
Step 4: Electrode or Applicator Placement
For capacitive SWD, electrodes are positioned around the treatment area.
For inductive SWD, the applicator is positioned over or around the treatment region.
The exact configuration affects energy distribution and heating.
Step 5: Parameter Selection
The clinician selects:
Continuous or pulsed mode
Power/intensity
Pulse characteristics where applicable
Treatment duration
Applicator configuration
Step 6: Monitoring
The patient should be asked about:
Excessive heat
Burning
Pain
Discomfort
Dizziness
Unexpected sensations
The treatment should be stopped if concerning symptoms occur.
Continuous SWD vs Pulsed SWD
| Feature | Continuous SWD | Pulsed SWD |
|---|---|---|
| Energy delivery | Continuous | Bursts/pulses |
| Average power | Usually higher | Usually lower |
| Tissue heating | More pronounced | Parameter-dependent |
| Main physiological emphasis | Thermal | Thermal or low-heating applications |
| Evidence for non-thermal effects | Not applicable as main mechanism | Clinically uncertain |
| Common rationale | Deep heating | Pain/rehabilitation adjunct |
| Thermal risk | Higher | Lower at low average power |
Importantly, pulsed does not automatically mean non-thermal.
Some pulsed protocols can still increase tissue temperature. Experimental evidence demonstrates substantial variation in tissue temperature response according to the exact treatment parameters. (PubMed)
Typical Treatment Duration
Clinical SWD protocols vary considerably.
Common treatment sessions may last approximately:
15–30 minutes
but duration depends on:
Treatment goal
Tissue depth
Continuous vs pulsed mode
Power
Treatment area
Patient response
Research protocols have varied widely, which is one reason it is difficult to establish a universal optimal dosage.
For example, one controlled knee osteoarthritis trial used 20-minute sessions three times per week for three weeks, while other studies have used different durations and treatment schedules. (PubMed)
What Should the Patient Feel?
With appropriately dosed thermal SWD, the patient may experience:
Gentle warmth
Relaxation
Reduced stiffness
Reduced pain
The treatment should not feel painfully hot.
Burning, sharp pain or excessive heat indicates that treatment parameters or positioning require immediate reassessment.
With low-dose pulsed SWD, the patient may feel little or no heating.
Benefits of Shortwave Diathermy
Potential benefits include:
Deep tissue heating
Temporary reduction in pain
Reduction in stiffness
Increased tissue extensibility
Increased local circulation
Reduced muscle spasm
Improved tolerance of movement
Potential facilitation of exercise
The evidence for these effects is not equally strong.
Physiological heating is well established, but the degree to which this translates into meaningful long-term functional improvement depends on the condition and treatment program.
Shortwave Diathermy vs Ultrasound
Both are used as physical agents, but they operate through different physical mechanisms.
| Feature | Shortwave Diathermy | Therapeutic Ultrasound |
|---|---|---|
| Energy type | Electromagnetic | Mechanical acoustic |
| Typical frequency | 27.12 MHz | Commonly 1 or 3 MHz |
| Main mechanism | Electromagnetic energy absorption | Acoustic energy absorption |
| Heating distribution | Can treat relatively large areas | More localized |
| Tissue interaction | Depends on conductivity/dielectric properties | Depends on acoustic properties/interfaces |
| Applicator | Electrodes/inductive coil | Ultrasound transducer |
| Main clinical use | Selected deep-heating applications | Selected soft-tissue/joint applications |
A 2026 knee osteoarthritis meta-analysis found ultrasound produced greater pain reduction than SWD in one comparison, although the modalities were statistically comparable for several other outcomes. (PubMed)
Neither modality should automatically be considered superior for every patient.
Shortwave Diathermy vs Microwave Diathermy
Both are electromagnetic diathermy modalities.
However, they differ in frequency and wavelength.
Shortwave
Common clinical frequency:
27.12 MHz
Microwave
Common therapeutic frequencies have historically included:
915 MHz
and
2.45 GHz
Because the electromagnetic frequency differs, tissue interaction and penetration characteristics also differ.
Shortwave diathermy is generally capable of treating larger areas, while microwave techniques can produce more localized electromagnetic heating.
Shortwave Diathermy vs Superficial Heat
Superficial heating includes:
Hot packs
Paraffin
Warm water
Infrared therapy
These primarily heat tissues from the surface inward.
SWD transfers electromagnetic energy into tissues.
Therefore, SWD may be considered when a clinician wants a deeper or larger-area heating effect without placing a hot object directly against the skin.
However, "deeper" does not automatically mean "better."
The clinical goal should determine modality selection.
Common Myths About Shortwave Diathermy
Myth 1: "Shortwave diathermy always produces deep heat."
False.
The magnitude and distribution of heating depend on treatment mode and parameters.
Some pulsed protocols produce relatively little measurable temperature increase. (PubMed)
Myth 2: "Pulsed shortwave is completely non-thermal."
Not necessarily.
Pulsed SWD can still produce tissue heating depending on average power and treatment parameters.
Myth 3: "If a patient does not feel heat, nothing is happening."
False.
The absence of a strong thermal sensation does not necessarily mean there is no electromagnetic exposure or physiological effect.
However, claims of clinically important non-thermal effects should not be made without adequate evidence.
Myth 4: "Shortwave diathermy heals arthritis."
Too strong.
Research suggests SWD may improve pain and some symptoms in knee osteoarthritis, but it does not reverse the structural degeneration of osteoarthritis.
Myth 5: "Shortwave diathermy can replace exercise."
False.
For musculoskeletal rehabilitation, exercise and functional rehabilitation remain central.
SWD is best considered an adjunct when clinically appropriate.
Myth 6: "More heat means a better treatment."
False.
Excessive heating increases the risk of tissue injury without guaranteeing better clinical outcomes.
Therapeutic dosing is more important than maximizing temperature.
Frequently Asked Questions
Does shortwave diathermy reduce pain?
It can produce short-term pain relief in some conditions.
Evidence in knee osteoarthritis is relatively supportive for pain outcomes, although studies are heterogeneous and certainty varies. (PubMed)
Is shortwave diathermy still used in physiotherapy?
Yes.
It remains available in some physiotherapy and rehabilitation settings, although its use varies substantially between countries and clinics.
Is shortwave diathermy safe?
It can be safe when appropriately prescribed and applied, but it has important contraindications, particularly involving implanted electronic devices, pregnancy and certain vascular or medical conditions.
Can shortwave diathermy be used with a pacemaker?
Routine therapeutic SWD should generally be avoided in patients with pacemakers and other implanted electronic devices unless specialist/device-specific guidance establishes safety.
Electromagnetic interference with pacemakers is a recognized safety concern. (PubMed)
Can SWD be used during pregnancy?
Therapeutic SWD should not be applied over areas where fetal exposure could occur.
Pregnancy is therefore generally treated as a contraindication for relevant SWD applications.
Does SWD increase blood flow?
Thermal SWD can produce vasodilation and increased local circulation.
The magnitude depends on the tissue temperature response.
How long does a shortwave diathermy session last?
Many clinical protocols use approximately 15–30 minutes, but the optimal duration depends on the treatment mode, power, treatment area and clinical goal.
Is pulsed SWD better than continuous SWD?
There is no universal answer.
The appropriate mode depends on whether the clinical objective is substantial tissue heating or a lower-average-power pulsed treatment.
Evidence does not establish one mode as universally superior.
Can SWD be used before exercise?
It can sometimes be used to reduce stiffness or discomfort before active rehabilitation.
If used, the clinician should ensure that the modality facilitates rather than replaces exercise.
Evidence-Based Takeaway
Shortwave diathermy uses high-frequency electromagnetic energy, commonly at 27.12 MHz, to transfer energy into biological tissues.
Its most clearly established physiological effect is tissue heating, although the magnitude of heating varies substantially with the treatment technique and parameters. (PubMed)
Clinical evidence is mixed.
For knee osteoarthritis, systematic reviews have reported improvements in pain, with newer evidence also suggesting possible improvements in walking ability, stiffness and physical function. However, evidence certainty varies, and SWD has not consistently outperformed other physical agents. (PubMed)
For musculoskeletal disorders more broadly, a 2023 systematic review found controversial results and predominantly low or very-low certainty evidence. (PubMed)
Recent trials suggest that SWD can produce short-term analgesic effects in chronic low back pain, but these findings should not be interpreted as evidence of durable benefit from SWD alone. (PubMed)
Therefore, the most defensible clinical position is:
Shortwave diathermy can be a useful adjunct for selected patients, particularly when a therapeutic heating effect is desired, but it should be integrated with active rehabilitation rather than used as a standalone treatment.
Final Thoughts
Shortwave diathermy is an interesting example of how electromagnetic physics can be translated into a clinical physiotherapy intervention.
The modality uses high-frequency electromagnetic energy rather than direct electrical stimulation or mechanical sound waves.
Its effects depend on:
Frequency
Power
Continuous or pulsed delivery
Electrode or applicator arrangement
Tissue conductivity
Treatment duration
Blood flow
Tissue characteristics
These variables determine whether the treatment produces substantial heating or relatively little temperature change.
Clinically, this distinction matters.
A physiotherapist should not prescribe SWD simply because a patient has pain. The clinician should first identify the treatment objective and determine whether electromagnetic heating is likely to provide a meaningful advantage.
When appropriate, SWD may help reduce pain and stiffness sufficiently to allow better participation in exercise, mobility training and functional rehabilitation.
But the long-term goal remains the same:
restore movement, strength, function and independence—not simply produce heat.
Selected References
Zhang S, Zhang H, Yu Y, Yang Y. Shortwave diathermy for managing knee osteoarthritis: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2026. PMID: 42348367. (PubMed)
Loyola-Sánchez A, et al. Effects of short-wave therapy in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2017. PMID: 28118736. (PubMed)
Laufer Y, Dar G. Effectiveness of thermal and athermal short-wave diathermy for the management of knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. 2012. PMID: 22659070. (PubMed)
The Efficacy of Electromagnetic Diathermy for the Treatment of Musculoskeletal Disorders: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. 2023. PMID: 37373650. (PubMed)
Immediate effects of two modes of shortwave diathermy in chronic low back pain: randomized controlled clinical trial. 2025/2026. PMID: 41045454. (PubMed)
Draper DO, et al. Tissue heating in different short wave diathermy methods: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. 2021. PMID: 34776156. (PubMed)
Effect of pulsed short-wave diathermy on pain and function of subjects with osteoarthritis of the knee: a placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2005. PMID: 15859526. (PubMed)
Akyol Y, et al. Does short-wave diathermy increase the effectiveness of isokinetic exercise on pain, function, knee muscle strength, quality of life, and depression in patients with knee osteoarthritis? 2010. PMID: 20926998. (PubMed)
Electromagnetic field interference and cardiac pacemakers. PMID: 959327. (PubMed)
Almalty A, et al. Physiotherapists' Understanding of Shortwave Diathermy Contraindications: A Questionnaire Survey. 2023. PMID: 37396935. (PubMed)
Ceyhan Z, Karaca ŞB. The efficacy of high-intensity laser and short-wave diathermy both combined with exercises in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized comparative study. 2025. PMID: 40232660. (PubMed)
